Social Issues and Policy: July 2024 to June 2026
Reservation and Social Justice
Sub-classification of SC/ST Reservations (August 2024)
A seven-judge Constitution bench overruled the E.V. Chinnaiah judgment (2004) and held that states can sub-classify Scheduled Castes for reservation. The Court held that within the SC category, some castes have been historically excluded from reservation benefits. States can create sub-quotas for the most backward SCs based on quantifiable data. This is the most significant reservation judgment since Indra Sawhney (1992).
Creamy layer: The Court declined to revisit the creamy layer exclusion for SCs/STs (established in Jarnail Singh, 2018). The creamy layer principle remains valid. A seven-judge bench revisited this in the Nagaraj review (March 2026), with Justice Nagarathna dissenting on the creamy layer question.
Reservation in Promotions: Nagaraj Revisited (March 2026)
The Court modified the three Nagaraj conditions. Backwardness of SCs/STs is presumed (no need for the state to prove it). Inadequacy of representation must be demonstrated with quantifiable data. Efficiency of administration includes diversity. The burden of proof shifts to the person challenging the reservation.
EWS Reservation: The Janhit Abhiyan Judgment (November 2022)
The 103rd Constitutional Amendment (2019), providing 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), was upheld by a 3:2 majority of the Supreme Court. The majority held that: (a) economic criteria can be the sole basis for reservation, (b) the 50% ceiling on reservation (Indra Sawhney, 1992) is not inflexible, (c) the exclusion of SCs, STs, and OBCs from EWS reservation does not violate the equality code because EWS is a separate class. By 2026, EWS reservation is fully operational across central educational institutions and civil services.
Caste Census
The demand for a caste census gained momentum. The Bihar government released its caste survey in October 2023, which found that OBCs and EBCs (Extremely Backward Classes) constitute 63% of the state's population. The survey was challenged in the Supreme Court. The Court did not stay the survey but held that states may not have the constitutional authority to conduct a census (which is a Union subject under Entry 69 of the Union List). The central government has not committed to a nationwide caste census. The opposition has made it a political demand. The Census 2021 (delayed due to COVID) has not been conducted. There is no official data on caste since the 1931 Census (colonial). The Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) 2011 collected caste data but it was never released.
Women and Gender
Women's Reservation: Implementation of the 106th Amendment (2023)
The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (106th Constitutional Amendment, 2023) provides 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies. The reservation will be implemented after the next delimitation exercise, which is contingent on the Census (due after 2026). The 129th Constitutional Amendment Bill (2025) extended the reservation to state legislative assemblies, completing the legal framework.
Marital Rape Exception Struck Down (October 2025)
The Supreme Court struck down Exception 2 to Section 375 IPC (Section 63 BNS) , the marital rape exception , as unconstitutional. The Court held that a woman does not surrender her right to sexual consent at marriage. This was a 4:1 judgment (Justice Nagarathna dissented, arguing for reading down rather than striking down).
Same-Sex Marriage: Supriyo Judgment Implementation (2023-2025)
The Supreme Court in Supriyo Chakraborty (October 2023) declined to legalise same-sex marriage but directed the government to form a committee on queer rights. The committee submitted its report in December 2024. The follow-up judgment (September 2025) directed implementation: queer couples can nominate each other for bank accounts, insurance, and pension; they have hospital visitation rights; and they are recognised as "family" for welfare schemes. The Court did NOT legalise same-sex marriage , that remains a legislative question.
Women's Labour Force Participation
The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) data showed a significant increase in female labour force participation: from 23.3% (2017-18) to 37.0% (2023-24), the highest since data collection began. The increase was concentrated in rural areas and in self-employment and agriculture. Whether this represents genuine economic empowerment or distress-driven participation (women entering the workforce because male incomes are insufficient) is debated. The Economic Survey 2025-26 devoted a chapter to the care economy and women's unpaid labour.
Sexual Harassment at Workplace
The POSH Act (Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013) compliance remained poor. The Supreme Court, in a 2023 judgment (Aureliano Fernandes vs State of Goa), directed all states and union territories to verify whether employers have constituted Internal Complaints Committees (ICCs) as required by law. By 2026, compliance has improved but remains incomplete. The Court's Vishakha guidelines (1997) remain the foundational framework.
Education
NEP 2020 Implementation
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 completed five years of implementation. Key milestones:
- 5+3+3+4 curricular structure: Replaced 10+2. PM-SHRI schools transitioned fully. National rollout by 2028
- PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) : Pilot in PM-SHRI schools (2027), national rollout (2028)
- National Curriculum Framework (NCF): The NCF for the Foundational Stage (2022), Preparatory Stage (2023), Middle Stage (2024), and Secondary Stage (2025) were all released. NCF 2025 is the most significant: it introduces semester-based assessment, multidisciplinary learning in Grades 11-12, and reduces the emphasis on board examinations
- Higher Education: The National Research Foundation (NRF), the Academic Bank of Credits (ABC), and the four-year undergraduate programme (FYUP) are operational. The Common University Entrance Test (CUET) is the primary admission mechanism for central universities
PM-SHRI Expansion
PM-SHRI schools increased from 14,500 to 22,000 (June 2026). The schools showcase NEP implementation. All PM-SHRI schools have transitioned to the 5+3+3+4 structure, offer instruction in the mother tongue up to Grade 5, and are connected to optical fibre under BharatNet.
ASER 2025 (Released January 2026)
The learning loss from COVID has been substantially recovered. Class 5 children who can read Class 2 text: 48.1% (2025) vs 50.3% (2018, pre-COVID). Class 5 children who can do division: 29.3% (2025) vs 27.9% (2018). Recovery was faster in states with remedial education programmes.
Health
Ayushman Bharat
The PM-JAY health insurance scheme covered 55 crore beneficiaries (the bottom 40% of the population). The scheme provides hospitalisation coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family per year. Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) increased from 1.5 lakh to 1.7 lakh. The ABDM (Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission) linked 55 crore ABHA IDs with 35 crore health records. Integration with PM-JAY was completed in November 2025.
National Health Policy
The National Health Policy 2017 targeted health expenditure of 2.5% of GDP by 2025. India's health expenditure is approximately 2.1% (2024-25). Out-of-pocket expenditure remains high at 48.2% of total health expenditure (WHO, 2026).
Tele-MANAS
The national tele-mental health helpline expanded to 22 languages, handling over 10 lakh calls in 2025-26. Integration with Ayushman Bharat HWCs for referral.
Disease Control
- TB elimination: The National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) targeted TB elimination by 2025 (revised to 2030). Incidence declined but the target was not met. India accounts for 27% of global TB cases
- Polio: India remains polio-free (last case: 2011)
- Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission (2023) : Targets elimination by 2047. India has 20 million carriers and 1.4 million patients, concentrated in tribal populations
Labour and Employment
Labour Codes Implementation
The four labour codes (Code on Wages, 2019; Industrial Relations Code, 2020; Social Security Code, 2020; Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020) were passed by Parliament but not fully implemented by all states. Labour is on the Concurrent List. States must frame rules. By 2026, 28 of 36 states and UTs have framed rules. The codes consolidate 29 central labour laws into four. Key changes: (a) universal minimum wage (replacing the fragmented system where different sectors had different minimum wages), (b) a national social security fund for gig and platform workers, (c) the threshold for requiring government permission for retrenchment raised from 100 to 300 workers.
Gig Economy
The Code on Social Security, 2020, recognised gig workers and platform workers as a distinct category for the first time. The government is building a national database of gig workers. The Rajasthan Platform-Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Act, 2023, was the first state legislation. Karnataka and Maharashtra have proposed similar laws. By 2026, NITI Aayog estimates 2.3 crore gig workers in India.
Employment Data
PLFS 2023-24: unemployment rate declined to 3.2% (usual status), the lowest since data collection began. However, the quality of employment remains a concern: 57% of workers are self-employed, 22% are casual labourers, and only 21% are regular wage/salaried workers. The formal sector (defined as those with a written contract and social security benefits) employs approximately 12% of the workforce.
Tribal Rights and Development
Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006: Implementation remains the central issue. The Act recognises individual and community rights over forest land. By 2025, approximately 2.1 million titles have been granted (out of an estimated 4.4 million claims). The rejection rate is high (approximately 50%), concentrated in states with significant mineral extraction. The Supreme Court's 2019 order directing states to evict forest dwellers whose claims were rejected was stayed after widespread protests. The matter is pending.
PM-JANMAN: Phase I (2023) and Phase II (2025) targeted 75 PVTG communities across 18,000 villages. Total budget: ₹24,000 crore over three years. The scheme covers housing, water, sanitation, electricity, education, health, and livelihood.
PESA Act, 1996: The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act is operational in 10 states with Fifth Schedule areas. Empowers Gram Sabhas to manage natural resources, resolve disputes, and approve mining and development projects. Implementation has been weak. The Supreme Court has repeatedly directed states to operationalise PESA.
Urban Development
PM Awas Yojana (Urban) 2.0: Sanctioned 2025. Target: 1 crore houses by 2029. The interest subsidy for EWS and LIG households was increased to ₹2.67 lakh.
National Urban Employment Guarantee Scheme (NUEGS) : Launched on a pilot basis in February 2026 in 25 cities. Modelled on MGNREGA. Provides 100 days of guaranteed wage employment.
Smart Cities Mission: The Mission, launched in 2015, completed its extended timeline (originally 2020, extended to 2024, then to 2025). 100 cities. Approximately 80% of projects were completed. The Mission has been replaced by the Urban Infrastructure Development Fund (UIDF), which provides concessional finance for urban infrastructure in tier-2 and tier-3 cities.